Knjiga Urantije
DIO III. Povijest Urantije
POGLAVLJE 70 : EVOLUCIJA LJUDSKE VLADE
Sekcije
- Uvod
- § 1. GENEZA RATA
- § 2. DRUŠTVENA VRIJEDNOST RATA
- § 3. RANA LJUDSKA UDRUŽENJA
- § 4. KLANOVI I PLEMENA
- § 5. POČECI VLADE
- § 6. MONARHIJSKA VLADAVINA
- § 7. PRIMITIVNI KLUBOVI I TAJNA DRUŠTVA
- § 8. DRUŠTVENE KLASE
- § 9. LJUDSKA PRAVA
- § 10. EVOLUCIJA PRAVDE
- § 11. ZAKONI I SUDOVI
- § 12. RASPODJELA GRAĐANSKE VLASTI
Paper 70
The Evolution of Human Government
The Evolution of Human Government
Sections
- Introduction
- § 1. The Genesis of War
- § 2. The Social Value of War
- § 3. Early Human Associations
- § 4. Clans and Tribes
- § 5. The Beginnings of Government
- § 6. Monarchial Government
- § 7. Primitive Clubs and Secret Societies
- § 8. Social Classes
- § 9. Human Rights
- § 10. Evolution of Justice
- § 11. Laws and Courts
- § 12. Allocation of Civil Authority
Na evolucijskom svijetu antagonizmi su prirodni; mir je osiguran samo nekom vrstom sustava društvene regulative. Društvena regulativa neodvojiva je od društvene organizacije; udruživanje podrazumijeva neku kontrolnu vlast. Vlada prisiljava na usklađivanje antagonizama plemena, klanova, obitelji i pojedinaca.
70:0.2 (783.2)
On an evolutionary world, antagonisms are natural; peace is secured only by some sort of social regulative system. Social regulation is inseparable from social organization; association implies some controlling authority. Government compels the co-ordination of the antagonisms of the tribes, clans, families, and individuals.
Do razvoja vlade dolazi nesvjesnim procesom; ona se razvija metodom pokušaja i pogreške. Ona ima vrijednost koja osigurava opstanak; iz tog razloga postaje tradicijom. Anarhija je povećavala bijedu; stoga se polako javila ili se još uvijek javlja vlada, odnosno određena mjera zakona i reda. Prisilni zahtjevi borbe za opstanak doslovno su tjerali ljudsku rasu putem napretka prema civilizaciji.
70:0.3 (783.3)
Government is an unconscious development; it evolves by trial and error. It does have survival value; therefore it becomes traditional. Anarchy augmented misery; therefore government, comparative law and order, slowly emerged or is emerging. The coercive demands of the struggle for existence literally drove the human race along the progressive road to civilization.
Rat je prirodno stanje i baština evoluirajućeg čovjeka; mir je društveno mjerilo napretka civilizacije. Prije djelomičnog podruštvljenja napredujućih rasa čovjek je bio izrazito individualističan, krajnje sumnjičav i nevjerojatno svadljiv. Nasilje je zakon prirode, neprijateljstvo automatska reakcija djece prirode, dok rat nije ništa drugo nego kolektivni izraz tih istih aktivnosti. I gdje god i kad god tkivo civilizacije postane napregnuto pod teretom komplikacija društvenog napretka, uvijek dolazi do neposrednog i pogubnog povratka tim ranim metodama nasilnog rješavanja napetosti u ljudskim odnosima.
70:1.1 (783.4)
War is the natural state and heritage of evolving man; peace is the social yardstick measuring civilization’s advancement. Before the partial socialization of the advancing races man was exceedingly individualistic, extremely suspicious, and unbelievably quarrelsome. Violence is the law of nature, hostility the automatic reaction of the children of nature, while war is but these same activities carried on collectively. And wherever and whenever the fabric of civilization becomes stressed by the complications of society’s advancement, there is always an immediate and ruinous reversion to these early methods of violent adjustment of the irritations of human interassociations.
Rat je animalistička reakcija na nesporazume i razdraženosti; mir prati civilizirano rješavanje svih takvih problema i poteškoća. Sangičke rase, zajedno s kasnije degeneriranim Adamitima i Noditima, svi su bili ratoborni. Andoniti su rano bili poučeni zlatnom pravilu, a čak i danas njihovi eskimski potomci uvelike žive prema tom kodeksu; običaj je među njima snažan i prilično su slobodni od nasilnih antagonizama.
70:1.2 (783.5)
War is an animalistic reaction to misunderstandings and irritations; peace attends upon the civilized solution of all such problems and difficulties. The Sangik races, together with the later deteriorated Adamites and Nodites, were all belligerent. The Andonites were early taught the golden rule, and, even today, their Eskimo descendants live very much by that code; custom is strong among them, and they are fairly free from violent antagonisms.
Andon je svoju djecu učio da sporove rješavaju tako što bi svaki udarao štapom po stablu, dok bi istovremeno proklinjao drvo; pobjednik je bio onaj čiji bi se štap prvi slomio. Kasniji Andoniti običavali su rješavati sporove održavanjem javnih nadmetanja u kojima su se protivnici međusobno ismijavali i rugali jedan drugome, dok bi publika pljeskom odlučivala o pobjedniku.
70:1.3 (783.6)
Andon taught his children to settle disputes by each beating a tree with a stick, meanwhile cursing the tree; the one whose stick broke first was the victor. The later Andonites used to settle disputes by holding a public show at which the disputants made fun of and ridiculed each other, while the audience decided the winner by its applause.
S pojavom društvenih grupacija pojedinačni nadražaji počeli su se podređivati osjećajima skupine, a to je promicalo unutarplemenski mir na štetu međuplemenskog mira. Ljudi su mir najprije uživali unutar vlastite skupine ili plemena, koje je uvijek pokazivalo odbojnost i mržnju prema onima koji mu nisu pripadali — strancima. Rani čovjek smatrao je vrlinom proliti krv stranca.
70:1.5 (784.1)
With the emergence of social groupings, individual irritations began to be submerged in the group feelings, and this promoted intratribal tranquillity but at the expense of intertribal peace. Peace was thus first enjoyed by the in-group, or tribe, who always disliked and hated the out-group, foreigners. Early man regarded it a virtue to shed alien blood.
Ali ni ovo u početku nije djelovalo. Kada bi rani poglavice pokušali izgladiti nesporazume, često su nalazili potrebnim da barem jednom godišnje dopuste plemenske borbe kamenjem. Klan bi se podijelio u dvije skupine i proveo cijeli dan u međusobnoj borbi. A sve to ni iz kojeg drugog razloga nego radi zabave; oni su uistinu uživali u tome.
70:1.6 (784.2)
But even this did not work at first. When the early chiefs would try to iron out misunderstandings, they often found it necessary, at least once a year, to permit the tribal stone fights. The clan would divide up into two groups and engage in an all-day battle. And this for no other reason than just the fun of it; they really enjoyed fighting.
6. Rekreacija — mladi ljudi tih ranih vremena promatrali su rat kao oblik razonode. Ako se nije mogao pronaći dovoljno dobar povod za rat, kada bi mir postao nepodnošljiv, susjedna plemena običavala su se upuštati u poluprijateljske sukobe i sudjelovati u prepadima kao obliku zabave, uživajući u prividnim bitkama.
70:1.13 (784.9)
6. Recreation—war was looked upon as recreation by the young men of these early times. If no good and sufficient pretext for war arose, when peace became oppressive, neighboring tribes were accustomed to go out in semifriendly combat to engage in a foray as a holiday, to enjoy a sham battle.
7. Religija — želja neke skupine da pridobije nove obraćenike za svoj kult. Sve primitivne religije odobravale su rat. Tek se u novije vrijeme religija počela protiviti ratu. Rana svećenstva su, nažalost, obično bila povezana s vojnom moći. Jedan od velikih mirovnih pokreta novijeg doba jest pokušaj razdvajanja crkve i države.
70:1.14 (784.10)
7. Religion—the desire to make converts to the cult. The primitive religions all sanctioned war. Only in recent times has religion begun to frown upon war. The early priesthoods were, unfortunately, usually allied with the military power. One of the great peace moves of the ages has been the attempt to separate church and state.
Ta drevna plemena uvijek su ratovala po nalogu svojih bogova, na zapovijed svojih poglavica ili vračeva. Hebreji su vjerovali u takvog „Boga bitaka”; a izvještaj o njihovom pohodu protiv Midjanaca tipičan je prikaz strašne okrutnosti drevnih plemenskih ratova; ovaj napad, sa svojim pokoljem svih muškaraca i kasnijim ubijanjem sve muške djece i svih žena koje nisu bile djevice, bio bi dostojan društvenih običaja plemenskog poglavice od prije dvjesto tisuća godina. I sve je to bilo izvršeno u „ime Gospoda Boga Izraelova.”
70:1.15 (784.11)
Always these olden tribes made war at the bidding of their gods, at the behest of their chiefs or medicine men. The Hebrews believed in such a “God of battles”; and the narrative of their raid on the Midianites is a typical recital of the atrocious cruelty of the ancient tribal wars; this assault, with its slaughter of all the males and the later killing of all male children and all women who were not virgins, would have done honor to the mores of a tribal chieftain of two hundred thousand years ago. And all this was executed in the “name of the Lord God of Israel.”
Rani ratovi vodili su se između cijelih plemena, ali u kasnijim vremenima, kada bi dvije osobe iz različitih plemena došle u spor, umjesto da cijela plemena krenu u rat, dvojica protivnika stupala bi u dvoboj. Također se razvio običaj da dvije vojske na bojištu ishod rata prepuste dvoboju između svojih predstavnika, kao u slučaju Davida i Golijata.
70:1.19 (785.2)
Early wars were fought between tribes as a whole, but in later times, when two individuals in different tribes had a dispute, instead of both tribes fighting, the two disputants engaged in a duel. It also became a custom for two armies to stake all on the outcome of a contest between a representative chosen from each side, as in the instance of David and Goliath.
Prvi korak u oplemenjivanju rata bilo je uzimanje zarobljenika. Žene su zatim bile izuzete iz neprijateljstava, nakon čega je uslijedilo priznavanje onih koji nisu sudjelovali u borbi. Vojne kaste i stajaće vojske ubrzo su se razvile kako bi društvo održalo korak sa sve većom složenošću ratovanja. Takvim je ratnicima rano bilo zabranjeno družiti se sa ženama, a žene su odavno prestale sudjelovati u borbama, premda su uvijek hranile i njegovale vojnike te ih poticale na bitku.
70:1.20 (785.3)
The first refinement of war was the taking of prisoners. Next, women were exempted from hostilities, and then came the recognition of noncombatants. Military castes and standing armies soon developed to keep pace with the increasing complexity of combat. Such warriors were early prohibited from associating with women, and women long ago ceased to fight, though they have always fed and nursed the soldiers and urged them on to battle.
Praksa objavljivanja rata predstavljala je veliki napredak. Takve objave namjere ratovanja označavale su pojavu osjećaja pravičnosti, a nakon toga je uslijedio postupan razvoj pravila „civiliziranog” ratovanja. Vrlo rano postao je običaj ne ratovati u blizini religijskih mjesta, a kasnije ni određenim svetim danima. Potom je uslijedilo opće priznavanje prava utočišta; politički bjegunci dobivali su zaštitu.
70:1.21 (785.4)
The practice of declaring war represented great progress. Such declarations of intention to fight betokened the arrival of a sense of fairness, and this was followed by the gradual development of the rules of “civilized” warfare. Very early it became the custom not to fight near religious sites and, still later, not to fight on certain holy days. Next came the general recognition of the right of asylum; political fugitives received protection.
U prošlim vremenima žestoki ratovi pokretali su društvene promjene i olakšavali usvajanje novih ideja do čijeg usvajanja prirodnim putem ne bi došlo ni tijekom deset tisuća godina. Strašna cijena plaćena za te ratne napretke bila je ta što je društvo privremeno bilo bačeno natrag u divljaštvo; civilizirani razum morao je abdicirati. Rat je snažan lijek, vrlo skup i opasan; premda ponekad liječi određene društvene poremećaje, u drugim slučajevima ubija pacijenta, uništavajući samo društvo.
70:2.1 (785.6)
In past ages a fierce war would institute social changes and facilitate the adoption of new ideas such as would not have occurred naturally in ten thousand years. The terrible price paid for these certain war advantages was that society was temporarily thrown back into savagery; civilized reason had to abdicate. War is strong medicine, very costly and most dangerous; while often curative of certain social disorders, it sometimes kills the patient, destroys the society.
70:2.2 (785.7)
The constant necessity for national defense creates many new and advanced social adjustments. Society, today, enjoys the benefit of a long list of useful innovations which were at first wholly military and is even indebted to war for the dance, one of the early forms of which was a military drill.
Rat je imao određenu evolucijsku i selektivnu vrijednost, ali kako civilizacija polako napreduje, čovjek se mora odreći rata onako kako se odrekao porobljavanja. Stari ratovi promovirali su putovanja i kulturnu razmjenu; tim ciljevima danas bolje služe suvremene metode prijevoza i komunikacije. Stari ratovi jačali su nacije, ali moderni sukobi razaraju civiliziranu kulturu. Drevna ratovanja rezultirala su istrebljenjem slabijih naroda; krajnji rezultat modernih sukoba jest selektivno uništenje najboljih ljudskih loza. Rani ratovi unapređivali su organizaciju i učinkovitost, ali to danas bolje ostvaruje moderna industrija. U prošlim vremenima ratovi su bili društvena previranja koja su gurala civilizaciju naprijed; danas se isti rezultat bolje postiže ambicijom i izumiteljstvom. Drevna ratovanja podupirala su koncept Boga ratovanja, ali modernom čovjeku rečeno je da je Bog ljubav. Rat je u prošlosti služio mnogim vrijednim svrhama; bio je neophodna skela u izgradnji civilizacije, ali ubrzano postaje kulturno bankrotiran — nesposoban proizvesti društvenu korist koja bi bila i približno razmjerna strašnim gubicima koji za njim slijede.
70:2.9 (785.14)
War has had a certain evolutionary and selective value, but like slavery, it must sometime be abandoned as civilization slowly advances. Olden wars promoted travel and cultural intercourse; these ends are now better served by modern methods of transport and communication. Olden wars strengthened nations, but modern struggles disrupt civilized culture. Ancient warfare resulted in the decimation of inferior peoples; the net result of modern conflict is the selective destruction of the best human stocks. Early wars promoted organization and efficiency, but these have now become the aims of modern industry. During past ages war was a social ferment which pushed civilization forward; this result is now better attained by ambition and invention. Ancient warfare supported the concept of a God of battles, but modern man has been told that God is love. War has served many valuable purposes in the past, it has been an indispensable scaffolding in the building of civilization, but it is rapidly becoming culturally bankrupt—incapable of producing dividends of social gain in any way commensurate with the terrible losses attendant upon its invocation.
70:2.10 (786.1)
At one time physicians believed in bloodletting as a cure for many diseases, but they have since discovered better remedies for most of these disorders. And so must the international bloodletting of war certainly give place to the discovery of better methods for curing the ills of nations.
Narodi Urantije već su stupili u golemi sukob između nacionalističkog militarizma i industrijalizma, a u mnogim je pogledima ovaj sukob analogan vjekovnoj borbi između stočara-lovca i zemljoradnika. Ali ako industrijalizam želi nadvladati militarizam, mora izbjeći opasnosti koje ga okružuju. Opasnosti rastuće industrije na Urantiji su:
70:2.11 (786.2)
The nations of Urantia have already entered upon the gigantic struggle between nationalistic militarism and industrialism, and in many ways this conflict is analogous to the agelong struggle between the herder-hunter and the farmer. But if industrialism is to triumph over militarism, it must avoid the dangers which beset it. The perils of budding industry on Urantia are:
70:2.18 (786.9)
Militarism is autocratic and cruel—savage. It promotes social organization among the conquerors but disintegrates the vanquished. Industrialism is more civilized and should be so carried on as to promote initiative and to encourage individualism. Society should in every way possible foster originality.
70:2.19 (786.10)
Do not make the mistake of glorifying war; rather discern what it has done for society so that you may the more accurately visualize what its substitutes must provide in order to continue the advancement of civilization. And if such adequate substitutes are not provided, then you may be sure that war will long continue.
Čovjek nikada neće prihvatiti mir kao normalan način života sve dok se iznova i temeljito ne uvjeri da je mir najbolji za njegovu materijalnu dobrobit, i dok društvo mudro ne osigura miroljubive oduške za zadovoljenje urođene potrebe za povremenim oslobađanjem kolektivnih nagona koji služe rasterećenju stalno nagomilavanih emocija i energija povezanih s instinktom samoodržanja ljudskog roda.
70:2.20 (786.11)
Man will never accept peace as a normal mode of living until he has been thoroughly and repeatedly convinced that peace is best for his material welfare, and until society has wisely provided peaceful substitutes for the gratification of that inherent tendency periodically to let loose a collective drive designed to liberate those ever-accumulating emotions and energies belonging to the self-preservation reactions of the human species.
Ali čak i usput rečeno, rat zavrjeđuje poštovanje kao škola iskustva koja je prisilila rasu arogantnih individualaca da se podvrgnu visoko koncentriranoj vlasti — vrhovnom izvršnom vođi. Starinski ratovi doista su birali urođene velikane za vodstvo, ali suvremeni rat to više ne čini. Suvremeno društvo sada mora tražiti vođe u osvajanjima mira: industriji, znanosti i društvenim postignućima.
70:2.21 (786.12)
But even in passing, war should be honored as the school of experience which compelled a race of arrogant individualists to submit themselves to highly concentrated authority—a chief executive. Old-fashioned war did select the innately great men for leadership, but modern war no longer does this. To discover leaders society must now turn to the conquests of peace: industry, science, and social achievement.
Spolna glad i majčinska ljubav uspostavljaju obitelj. Ali prava vladavina ne pojavljuje se sve dok se ne počnu oblikovati nadobiteljske skupine. U predobiteljskim danima horde vodstvo su pružali neformalno izabrani pojedinci. Afrički Bušmani nikada nisu napredovali dalje od tog primitivnog stupnja; oni nemaju poglavice unutar horde.
70:3.2 (787.2)
Sex hunger and mother love establish the family. But real government does not appear until superfamily groups have begun to form. In the prefamily days of the horde, leadership was provided by informally chosen individuals. The African Bushmen have never progressed beyond this primitive stage; they do not have chiefs in the horde.
Obitelji su se ujedinjavale krvnim vezama u klanove, skupine srodnika; a oni su se potom razvili u plemena, teritorijalne zajednice. Ratovanje i vanjski pritisci nametnuli su plemensku organizaciju rodovskim klanovima, ali trgovina i razmjena održavale su te rane i primitivne skupine na okupu s nekim stupnjem unutarnjeg mira.
70:3.3 (787.3)
Families became united by blood ties in clans, aggregations of kinsmen; and these subsequently evolved into tribes, territorial communities. Warfare and external pressure forced the tribal organization upon the kinship clans, but it was commerce and trade that held these early and primitive groups together with some degree of internal peace.
70:3.4 (787.4)
The peace of Urantia will be promoted far more by international trade organizations than by all the sentimental sophistry of visionary peace planning. Trade relations have been facilitated by development of language and by improved methods of communication as well as by better transportation.
U ranim vremenima svako je pleme bilo okruženo koncentričnim krugovima sve većeg straha i sumnjičavosti; stoga je nekoć bio običaj ubijati sve strance, a kasnije ih porobljavati. Stara ideja prijateljstva značila je usvajanje u klan; a vjerovalo se da članstvo u klanu opstaje i nakon smrti — jedan od najranijih koncepata vječnog života.
70:3.6 (787.6)
In the early ages each tribe was surrounded by concentric circles of increasing fear and suspicion; hence it was once the custom to kill all strangers, later on, to enslave them. The old idea of friendship meant adoption into the clan; and clan membership was believed to survive death—one of the earliest concepts of eternal life.
Ceremonija usvajanja sastojala se u međusobnom ispijanju krvi. U nekim skupinama slina se razmjenjivala umjesto ispijanja krvi, što je predstavljalo drevno porijeklo običaja društvenog ljubljenja. A sve ceremonije sklapanja društvenih veza, bilo bračne ili posvojiteljske, uvijek su završavale gozbom.
70:3.7 (787.7)
The ceremony of adoption consisted in drinking each other’s blood. In some groups saliva was exchanged in the place of blood drinking, this being the ancient origin of the practice of social kissing. And all ceremonies of association, whether marriage or adoption, were always terminated by feasting.
U kasnijim vremenima koristila se krv razrijeđena crvenim vinom, a na kraju se pilo samo vino kako bi se potvrdila ceremonija usvajanja, što je bilo označeno dodirom vinskih čaša i dovršeno ispijanjem pića. Hebreji su koristili izmijenjeni oblik ove ceremonije usvajanja. Njihovi arapski preci koristili su prisegu polaganu dok je ruka kandidata počivala na spolnom organu plemenskog pripadnika. Hebreji su prema usvojenim strancima postupali ljubazno i bratski. „Stranac koji prebiva među vama neka vam bude kao onaj rođen među vama, i ljubite ga kao samoga sebe.”
70:3.8 (787.8)
In later times, blood diluted with red wine was used, and eventually wine alone was drunk to seal the adoption ceremony, which was signified in the touching of the wine cups and consummated by the swallowing of the beverage. The Hebrews employed a modified form of this adoption ceremony. Their Arab ancestors made use of the oath taken while the hand of the candidate rested upon the generative organ of the tribal native. The Hebrews treated adopted aliens kindly and fraternally. “The stranger that dwells with you shall be as one born among you, and you shall love him as yourself.”
„Gostinsko prijateljstvo” bilo je odnos privremenog gostoprimstva. Kada bi se gosti spremali na odlazak, bio je običaj razbiti posudu na dva dijela i jednu krhotinu dati gostu kao prikladan znak preporuke za buduće posjetitelje. Bilo je uobičajeno da gosti svoj boravak „plate” pričanjem priča o svojim putovanjima i pustolovinama. Pripovjedači drevnih vremena postali su toliko popularni da su njihovi nastupi naposljetku bili zabranjeni tijekom lovnih i žetvenih sezona.
70:3.9 (787.9)
“Guest friendship” was a relation of temporary hospitality. When visiting guests departed, a dish would be broken in half, one piece being given the departing friend so that it would serve as a suitable introduction for a third party who might arrive on a later visit. It was customary for guests to pay their way by telling tales of their travels and adventures. The storytellers of olden times became so popular that the mores eventually forbade their functioning during either the hunting or harvest seasons.
Najranije mirovne misije sastojale su se od izaslanstava muškaraca koji su dovodili svoje odabrane djevojke radi spolnog zadovoljenja svojih nekadašnjih neprijatelja, pri čemu je spolni nagon korišten za suzbijanje ratničkog nagona. Tako počašćeno pleme uzvratilo bi posjet vlastitom ponudom djevojaka; nakon toga mir bi bio čvrsto uspostavljen. I ubrzo su bili odobreni međusobni brakovi između obitelji poglavica.
70:3.11 (788.2)
The earliest peace missions consisted of delegations of men bringing their choice maidens for the sex gratification of their onetime enemies, the sex appetite being utilized in combating the war urge. The tribe so honored would pay a return visit, with its offering of maidens; whereupon peace would be firmly established. And soon intermarriages between the families of the chiefs were sanctioned.
Prva miroljubiva skupina bila je obitelj, zatim klan, pleme, a kasnije i narod, koji je na kraju postao suvremena teritorijalna država. Vrlo je ohrabrujuća činjenica da su današnje miroljubive skupine odavno prerasle krvne veze i obuhvatile čitave narode, unatoč tome što narodi Urantije još uvijek troše golema sredstva na pripreme za rat.
70:4.1 (788.3)
The first peace group was the family, then the clan, the tribe, and later on the nation, which eventually became the modern territorial state. The fact that the present-day peace groups have long since expanded beyond blood ties to embrace nations is most encouraging, despite the fact that Urantia nations are still spending vast sums on war preparations.
Mirovni poglavari klanova obično su vladali po majčinskoj liniji; plemenski ratni poglavari uspostavili su očinsku liniju. Dvorovi plemenskih poglavica i ranih kraljeva sastojali su se od klanovskih poglavara, koje je bio običaj nekoliko puta godišnje pozivati pred kralja. To mu je omogućavalo da ih nadzire i bolje osigura njihovu suradnju. Klanovi su služili vrijednoj svrsi u lokalnoj samoupravi, ali su uvelike usporavali razvoj velikih i snažnih nacija.
70:4.10 (788.12)
The clan peace chiefs usually ruled through the mother line; the tribal war chiefs established the father line. The courts of the tribal chiefs and early kings consisted of the headmen of the clans, whom it was customary to invite into the king’s presence several times a year. This enabled him to watch them and the better secure their co-operation. The clans served a valuable purpose in local self-government, but they greatly delayed the growth of large and strong nations.
Svaka ljudska ustanova imala je svoj početak, a građanska vlast proizvod je progresivne evolucije jednako kao i brak, industrija i religija. Iz ranih klanova i primitivnih plemena postupno se razvio niz oblika ljudske vlasti koji su dolazili i prolazili sve do oblika društvene i građanske regulacije koji obilježavaju drugu trećinu dvadesetog stoljeća.
70:5.1 (788.7)
Every human institution had a beginning, and civil government is a product of progressive evolution just as much as are marriage, industry, and religion. From the early clans and primitive tribes there gradually developed the successive orders of human government which have come and gone right on down to those forms of social and civil regulation that characterize the second third of the twentieth century.
Postupnim nastankom obiteljskih jedinica postavljeni su temelji vlasti u organizaciji klanova, grupiranju krvno povezanih obitelji. Prvo stvarno upravno tijelo bilo je vijeće starješina. Ova regulativna skupina sastojala se od starih ljudi koji su se posebno istakli. Mudrost i iskustvo rano su bili cijenjeni čak i među barbarskim ljudima, pa je uslijedilo dugo razdoblje dominacije starješina. Ova vlast oligarhije postupno prerasta u ideju patrijarhata.
70:5.2 (788.8)
With the gradual emergence of the family units the foundations of government were established in the clan organization, the grouping of consanguineous families. The first real governmental body was the council of the elders. This regulative group was composed of old men who had distinguished themselves in some efficient manner. Wisdom and experience were early appreciated even by barbaric man, and there ensued a long age of the domination of the elders. This reign of the oligarchy of age gradually grew into the patriarchal idea.
Rano vijeće starješina sadržavalo je potencijal za sve upravne funkcije: izvršne, zakonodavne i sudske. Kada je vijeće tumačilo postojeće društvene običaje, djelovalo je kao sud; kada je uspostavljalo nove oblike društvene prakse, bilo je zakonodavno tijelo; a u onoj mjeri u kojoj su se takve odluke i uredbe provodile, bilo je izvršna vlast. Predsjedavajući vijeća bio je jedan od preteča kasnijeg plemenskog poglavice.
70:5.3 (789.1)
In the early council of the elders there resided the potential of all governmental functions: executive, legislative, and judicial. When the council interpreted the current mores, it was a court; when establishing new modes of social usage, it was a legislature; to the extent that such decrees and enactments were enforced, it was the executive. The chairman of the council was one of the forerunners of the later tribal chief.
Ljudima je bilo teško naučiti da ni mirom ni ratom ne mogu upravljati društva odana beskrajnom polemiziranju. Rijetko je bilo koristi od takvih „torokanja.” Ljudska rasa je rano naučila da vojska kojom zapovijeda skupina klanskih poglavara nema nikakve šanse protiv snažne vojske pod vodstvom jednog zapovjednika. Rat je oduvijek stvarao kraljeve.
70:5.5 (788.11)
It has been hard for mankind to learn that neither peace nor war can be run by a debating society. The primitive “palavers” were seldom useful. The race early learned that an army commanded by a group of clan heads had no chance against a strong one-man army. War has always been a kingmaker.
Isprva su ratni poglavari bili birani samo za vojnu službu i imali su običaj odreći se dijela svojih ovlasti tijekom razdoblja mira, kada su njihove dužnosti bile više društvene prirode. No postupno su počeli zadirati u mirnodopska razdoblja, nastojeći produžiti svoju vlast od rata do rata. Često su pazili da razdoblje mira između ratova ne traje predugo. Ti rani gospodari rata nisu bili skloni miru.
70:5.6 (788.12)
At first the war chiefs were chosen only for military service, and they would relinquish some of their authority during peacetimes, when their duties were of a more social nature. But gradually they began to encroach upon the peace intervals, tending to continue to rule from one war on through to the next. They often saw to it that one war was not too long in following another. These early war lords were not fond of peace.
U kasnijim vremenima neki su poglavari bili birani za službe koje nisu bile vojne, a odabirani su zbog neobičnog stasa ili iznimnih osobnih sposobnosti. Crveni ljudi često su imali dvije vrste poglavara — plemenske ili mirnodopske poglavare i nasljedne ratne poglavare. Mirnodopski vladari bili su također suci i učitelji.
70:5.7 (788.13)
In later times some chiefs were chosen for other than military service, being selected because of unusual physique or outstanding personal abilities. The red men often had two sets of chiefs—the sachems, or peace chiefs, and the hereditary war chiefs. The peace rulers were also judges and teachers.
70:5.9 (788.15)
And it was by these steps that the executive branch of government gradually came into existence. The clan and tribal councils continued in an advisory capacity and as forerunners of the later appearing legislative and judicial branches. In Africa, today, all these forms of primitive government are in actual existence among the various tribes.
70:6.2 (789.9)
Rulership grew out of the idea of family authority or wealth. When a patriarchal kinglet became a real king, he was sometimes called “father of his people.” Later on, kings were thought to have sprung from heroes. And still further on, rulership became hereditary, due to belief in the divine origin of kings.
Nasljednim kraljevstvom izbjegnuta je anarhija koja je do tada stvarala pustoš između smrti kralja i izbora njegova nasljednika. Obitelj je imala biološkog poglavara; klan je imao odabranog prirodnog vođu; pleme i kasnija država nisu imali prirodnog vođu, i to je bio dodatni razlog za uspostavljanje nasljedne linije kraljevskog poglavarstva. Ideja kraljevske obitelji i aristokracije također se temeljila na običajima „imenskog vlasništva” u klanovima.
70:6.3 (789.10)
Hereditary kingship avoided the anarchy which had previously wrought such havoc between the death of a king and the election of a successor. The family had a biologic head; the clan, a selected natural leader; the tribe and later state had no natural leader, and this was an additional reason for making the chief-kings hereditary. The idea of royal families and aristocracy was also based on the mores of “name ownership” in the clans.
Nasljedna linija kraljeva na kraju se počela smatrati nadnaravnom, a vjerovalo se da je kraljevska krv povezana s krvlju materijaliziranog osoblja princa Kaligastije. Tako su kraljevi postali fetišne ličnosti kojih su se ljudi pretjerano bojali, a na kraljevskom dvoru koristio se poseban oblik govora. Čak se i u skorije vrijeme vjerovalo da dodir kraljeva liječi bolesti, a neki narodi Urantije još uvijek vjeruju da njihovi vladari imaju božansko porijeklo.
70:6.4 (790.1)
The succession of kings was eventually regarded as supernatural, the royal blood being thought to extend back to the times of the materialized staff of Prince Caligastia. Thus kings became fetish personalities and were inordinately feared, a special form of speech being adopted for court usage. Even in recent times it was believed that the touch of kings would cure disease, and some Urantia peoples still regard their rulers as having had a divine origin.
Rani fetišni kralj često se držao u osami; smatralo se da je previše svet da bi ga ljudi vidjeli, osim tijekom svjetovnih i svetih blagdana. Obično bi bio izabran predstavnik koji bi ga oponašao, a iz toga je nastala pozicija državnog premijera. Prvi službenik državnog kabineta bio je dužnosnik zadužen za nadgledanje hrane; ubrzo su slijedili i drugi. Vladari su uskoro imenovali predstavnike zadužene za trgovinu i religiju; razvoj kabineta bio je izravan korak prema depersonalizaciji izvršne vlasti. Ovi pomoćnici ranih kraljeva postali su prihvaćeno plemstvo, a kraljeva supruga postupno se uzdigla do dostojanstva kraljice kako su žene počele uživati veće poštovanje.
70:6.5 (790.2)
The early fetish king was often kept in seclusion; he was regarded as too sacred to be viewed except on feast days and holy days. Ordinarily a representative was chosen to impersonate him, and this is the origin of prime ministers. The first cabinet officer was a food administrator; others shortly followed. Rulers soon appointed representatives to be in charge of commerce and religion; and the development of a cabinet was a direct step toward depersonalization of executive authority. These assistants of the early kings became the accepted nobility, and the king’s wife gradually rose to the dignity of queen as women came to be held in higher esteem.
Beskrupulozni vladari stekli su veliku moć otkrićem otrova. Rana dvorska magija bila je dijabolična; kraljevi neprijatelji prvi bi umirali. No čak je i najdespotskiji tiranin bio podvrgnut određenim ograničenjima; barem ga je sputavao stalni strah od atentata. Vračevi, vještaci i svećenici uvijek su imali snažnu kontrolu nad kraljevima. Nakon toga su zemljoposjednici — aristokracija — obuzdavali njihov utjecaj. Uvijek iznova klanovi i plemena dizali bi se i rušili svoje despote i tiranine. Svrgnutim vladarima, nakon što bi bili osuđeni na smrt, često je bila dana mogućnost da počine samoubojstvo, što je dovelo do starog društvenog običaja oduzimanja vlastitog života u određenim okolnostima.
70:6.6 (790.3)
Unscrupulous rulers gained great power by the discovery of poison. Early court magic was diabolical; the king’s enemies soon died. But even the most despotic tyrant was subject to some restrictions; he was at least restrained by the ever-present fear of assassination. The medicine men, witch doctors, and priests have always been a powerful check on the kings. Subsequently, the landowners, the aristocracy, exerted a restraining influence. And ever and anon the clans and tribes would simply rise up and overthrow their despots and tyrants. Deposed rulers, when sentenced to death, were often given the option of committing suicide, which gave origin to the ancient social vogue of suicide in certain circumstances.
Krvno srodstvo određivalo je prve društvene skupine; udruživanje je proširilo rodovski klan. Međuplemenski brakovi bili su sljedeći korak u širenju skupina, a složeno pleme koje je iz toga nastalo bilo je prvo pravo političko tijelo. Sljedeći napredak u društvenom razvoju bila je evolucija religijskih kultova i političkih klubova. Oni su se najprije pojavili kao tajna društva i izvorno su bili potpuno religijske prirode; kasnije su postali regulativni. U početku su to bili muški klubovi; kasnije su se pojavili i ženski klubovi. Uskoro su se podijelili u dvije klase: društveno-političke i religijsko-mistične.
70:7.1 (790.4)
Blood kinship determined the first social groups; association enlarged the kinship clan. Intermarriage was the next step in group enlargement, and the resultant complex tribe was the first true political body. The next advance in social development was the evolution of religious cults and the political clubs. These first appeared as secret societies and originally were wholly religious; subsequently they became regulative. At first they were men’s clubs; later women’s groups appeared. Presently they became divided into two classes: sociopolitical and religio-mystical.
Velika tajnovitost tih društava obavijala je sve njihove članove velom misterije koji im je davao moć nad ostatkom plemena. Tajnost je štoviše laskala taštini; vodila je stvaranju društvene aristokracije toga doba. Nakon inicijacije dječaci su odlazili u lov s muškarcima; prije inicijacije ubirali su povrće sa ženama. A najveće poniženje — sramota pred cijelim plemenom — bilo je pasti na ispitu zrelosti i ne steći pravo ulaska u muško prebivalište, nego ostati sa ženama i djecom te biti smatran ženskastim. Osim toga, neiniciranim mladićima nije bilo dopušteno oženiti se.
70:7.7 (790.10)
The very secrecy of these societies conferred on all members the power of mystery over the rest of the tribe. Secrecy also appeals to vanity; the initiates were the social aristocracy of their day. After initiation the boys hunted with the men; whereas before they had gathered vegetables with the women. And it was the supreme humiliation, a tribal disgrace, to fail to pass the puberty tests and thus be compelled to remain outside the men’s abode with the women and children, to be considered effeminate. Besides, noninitiates were not allowed to marry.
Primitivni ljudi vrlo su rano svoju adolescentnu mladež učili spolnoj samokontroli. Vladao je običaj da se dječaci odvoje od roditelja od puberteta do braka, a njihovo obrazovanje i obuka odvijali su se u muškim tajnim društvima. Jedna od glavnih funkcija tih klubova bila je nadzor nad adolescentnim mladićima i sprječavanje rađanja izvanbračne djece.
70:7.8 (791.1)
Primitive people very early taught their adolescent youths sex control. It became the custom to take boys away from parents from puberty to marriage, their education and training being intrusted to the men’s secret societies. And one of the chief functions of these clubs was to keep control of adolescent young men, thus preventing illegitimate children.
Ceremonija inicijacije u pubertet obično je trajala pet godina. Često je uključivala obrede u kojima su članovi sami sebi nanosili rane i muke. Obrezivanje je prvi put prakticirano kao obred inicijacije u jedno od tih tajnih bratstava. Plemenske insignije urezivale su se u tijelo kao dio inicijacije u pubertet; tetoviranje je nastalo kao obilježje članstva. Takva mučenja, zajedno s mnogim odricanjima, imala su za cilj očvrsnuti te mladiće, suočiti ih sa stvarnošću života i njegovim neizbježnim teškoćama. Taj cilj kasnije se bolje ostvarivao atletskim igrama i fizičkim natjecanjima.
70:7.10 (791.3)
The puberty initiation ceremony usually extended over a period of five years. Much self-torture and painful cutting entered into these ceremonies. Circumcision was first practiced as a rite of initiation into one of these secret fraternities. The tribal marks were cut on the body as a part of the puberty initiation; the tattoo originated as such a badge of membership. Such torture, together with much privation, was designed to harden these youths, to impress them with the reality of life and its inevitable hardships. This purpose is better accomplished by the later appearing athletic games and physical contests.
Nakon tih godina stroge discipline i obuke, i neposredno prije braka, mladići su obično dobivali kratko razdoblje razonode i slobode, nakon čega bi se vraćali kako bi stupili u brak i prihvatili doživotnu podložnost plemenskim tabuima. I taj se drevni običaj nastavio sve do modernih vremena kao glupava ideja „sjetve divlje zobi.”
70:7.12 (791.5)
Following these years of rigorous discipline and training and just before marriage, the young men were usually released for a short period of leisure and freedom, after which they returned to marry and to submit to lifelong subjection to the tribal taboos. And this ancient custom has continued down to modern times as the foolish notion of “sowing wild oats.”
Mnoga kasnija plemena dopuštala su formiranje ženskih tajnih klubova u svrhu pripreme adolescentica za ulogu supruge i majke. Nakon inicijacije djevojke su stjecale pravo na brak i bilo im je dopušteno prisustvovati „pokazivanju mladenki,” što je bio oblik izlaska u društvo toga vremena. Rano su se pojavile i ženske skupine koje su se obvezale da neće stupiti u brak.
70:7.13 (791.6)
Many later tribes sanctioned the formation of women’s secret clubs, the purpose of which was to prepare adolescent girls for wifehood and motherhood. After initiation girls were eligible for marriage and were permitted to attend the “bride show,” the coming-out party of those days. Women’s orders pledged against marriage early came into existence.
S vremenom su se pojavili klubovi koji nisu bili tajni kada su skupine neoženjenih muškaraca i neudanih žena osnovale svoje zasebne organizacije. Te udruge zapravo su bile prve škole. I dok su muški i ženski klubovi često progonili jedni druge, neka napredna plemena, nakon kontakta s učiteljima Dalamatije, eksperimentirala su sa zajedničkim obrazovanjem, imajući internate za oba spola.
70:7.14 (791.7)
Presently nonsecret clubs made their appearance when groups of unmarried men and groups of unattached women formed their separate organizations. These associations were really the first schools. And while men’s and women’s clubs were often given to persecuting each other, some advanced tribes, after contact with the Dalamatia teachers, experimented with coeducation, having boarding schools for both sexes.
Tajna društva pridonijela su izgradnji društvenih kasta uglavnom zahvaljujući tajanstvenom karakteru svojih ceremonija inicijacije. Članovi tih društava prvi su nosili maske kako bi upozorili radoznale da se drže podalje od njihovih obreda žalosti — štovanja predaka. Kasnije se ovaj ritual razvio u pseudo-seanse tijekom kojih su se navodno pojavljivali duhovi. Drevna društva „novog rođenja” koristila su znakove i poseban tajni jezik; također su se uzdržavala od određene hrane i pića. Djelovala su kao noćna policija i na druge načine sudjelovala u širokom rasponu društvenih aktivnosti.
70:7.15 (791.8)
Secret societies contributed to the building up of social castes chiefly by the mysterious character of their initiations. The members of these societies first wore masks to frighten the curious away from their mourning rites—ancestor worship. Later this ritual developed into a pseudo seance at which ghosts were reputed to have appeared. The ancient societies of the “new birth” used signs and employed a special secret language; they also forswore certain foods and drinks. They acted as night police and otherwise functioned in a wide range of social activities.
Sve tajne udruge nametale su prisegu, tražile povjerljivost i učile svoje članove čuvanju tajni. Ovi redovi budili su strahopoštovanje i držali mase pod kontrolom; također su djelovali kao nadzorna društva, provodeći pravo linča. Oni su bili prvi špijuni kada su njihova plemena ratovala i prva tajna policija u vrijeme mira. Najbolje od svega, držali su beskrupulozne kraljeve u neizvjesnosti. Kako bi im se suprotstavili, kraljevi su formirali vlastitu tajnu policiju.
70:7.16 (792.1)
All secret associations imposed an oath, enjoined confidence, and taught the keeping of secrets. These orders awed and controlled the mobs; they also acted as vigilance societies, thus practicing lynch law. They were the first spies when the tribes were at war and the first secret police during times of peace. Best of all they kept unscrupulous kings on the anxious seat. To offset them, the kings fostered their own secret police.
Te klubove trgovci su koristili za naplatu dugova, a vladari za prikupljanje poreza. Oporezivanje je dugo bilo predmet borbe, a jedan od njegovih najranijih oblika bilo je prikupljanje desetka, odnosno desetine lovine ili plijena. Porezi su izvorno bili nametnuti radi uzdržavanja kraljevskog dvora, ali se pokazalo da ih je bilo lakše prikupiti pod izgovorom uzdržavanja hramske službe.
70:7.18 (792.3)
These clubs were employed by merchants to collect debts and by rulers to collect taxes. Taxation has been a long struggle, one of the earliest forms being the tithe, one tenth of the hunt or spoils. Taxes were originally levied to keep up the king’s house, but it was found that they were easier to collect when disguised as an offering for the support of the temple service.
Mentalne i fizičke nejednakosti ljudskih bića osiguravaju pojavu društvenih klasa. Jedini svjetovi bez društvenih slojeva jesu oni najprimitivniji i oni najnapredniji. Društvo u osvitu civilizacije još nije započelo razdvajanje društvenih razina, dok je svijet utemeljen u svjetlu i životu u velikoj mjeri izbrisao podjele među ljudima koje obilježavaju svaku međufazu evolucije.
70:8.1 (792.5)
The mental and physical inequality of human beings insures that social classes will appear. The only worlds without social strata are the most primitive and the most advanced. A dawning civilization has not yet begun the differentiation of social levels, while a world settled in light and life has largely effaced these divisions of mankind, which are so characteristic of all intermediate evolutionary stages.
6. Društveni — društvene klase postupno su se oblikovale prema općoj procjeni društvene vrijednosti različitih skupina. Među najranijim podjelama ove vrste bila su razgraničenja između svećenika-učitelja, vladara-ratnika, kapitalista-trgovaca, običnih radnika i robova. Rob nikada nije mogao postati kapitalist, premda je nadničar ponekad mogao prijeći u kapitalističke redove.
70:8.8 (792.12)
6. Social—classes have gradually formed according to popular estimate of the social worth of different groups. Among the earliest divisions of this sort were the demarcations between priest-teachers, ruler-warriors, capitalist-traders, common laborers, and slaves. The slave could never become a capitalist, though sometimes the wage earner could elect to join the capitalistic ranks.
Fleksibilne i promjenjive društvene klase neophodne su za civilizaciju u razvoju, ali kada klasa postane kasta, kada se društveni slojevi ukrute, povećanje društvene stabilnosti plaća se smanjenjem osobne inicijative. Društvena kasta rješava problem pronalaženja mjesta u gospodarskom životu, ali također ozbiljno ograničava individualni razvoj i gotovo onemogućuje društvenu suradnju.
70:8.13 (793.5)
Flexible and shifting social classes are indispensable to an evolving civilization, but when class becomes caste, when social levels petrify, the enhancement of social stability is purchased by diminishment of personal initiative. Social caste solves the problem of finding one’s place in industry, but it also sharply curtails individual development and virtually prevents social co-operation.
Ali ove mjere mogu donijeti svoje istinske plodove tek u dalekim tisućljećima budućnosti, premda će mnogo društvenog napretka neposredno proizaći iz inteligentnog, mudrog i strpljivog usmjeravanja tih čimbenika ubrzanog kulturnog razvoja. Religija je moćna poluga koja uzdiže civilizaciju iz kaosa, ali je nemoćna bez oslonca zdravog i normalnog uma koji sigurno počiva na zdravom i normalnom nasljeđu.
70:8.18 (793.10)
But these measures can bear their true fruits only in the distant millenniums of the future, although much social improvement will immediately result from the intelligent, wise, and patient manipulation of these acceleration factors of cultural progress. Religion is the mighty lever that lifts civilization from chaos, but it is powerless apart from the fulcrum of sound and normal mind resting securely on sound and normal heredity.
Priroda čovjeku ne daje nikakva prava, već samo život i svijet u kojem može živjeti. Priroda čak ne daje ni pravo na život, što se može zaključiti ako zamislimo što bi se dogodilo kada bi se nenaoružan čovjek suočio licem u lice s gladnim tigrom u iskonskoj šumi. Glavni dar društva čovjeku jest sigurnost.
70:9.1 (793.11)
Nature confers no rights on man, only life and a world in which to live it. Nature does not even confer the right to live, as might be deduced by considering what would likely happen if an unarmed man met a hungry tiger face to face in the primitive forest. Society’s prime gift to man is security.
Kada su prava toliko stara da se više ne može prizvati u sjećanje njihovo porijeklo, ona se često nazivaju prirodnim pravima. Ali ljudska prava zapravo nisu prirodna; ona su u cijelosti društvena. Relativna su i neprestano se mijenjaju te nisu ništa više od pravila igre — priznatih prilagodbi odnosa koji uređuju stalno promjenjive pojave ljudskog natjecanja.
70:9.13 (794.8)
When rights are old beyond knowledge of origin, they are often called natural rights. But human rights are not really natural; they are entirely social. They are relative and ever changing, being no more than the rules of the game—recognized adjustments of relations governing the ever-changing phenomena of human competition.
Ono što se u jednom dobu može smatrati pravom ne mora se tako smatrati u drugom. Opstanak velikog broja defektnih i degeneriranih pojedinaca nije posljedica nekog njihovog prirodnog prava da opterećuju civilizaciju dvadesetog stoljeća, već jednostavno toga što društvo ovog doba, njegovi običaji i konvencije, tako određuju.
70:9.14 (794.9)
What may be regarded as right in one age may not be so regarded in another. The survival of large numbers of defectives and degenerates is not because they have any natural right thus to encumber twentieth-century civilization, but simply because the society of the age, the mores, thus decrees.
U europskom srednjem vijeku bilo je priznato malo ljudskih prava; tada je svaki čovjek pripadao nekome drugome, a prava su bila tek povlastice ili milosti koje su dodjeljivale država ili crkva. Pobuna protiv te pogreške bila je jednako pogrešna jer je dovela do vjerovanja da se svi ljudi rađaju jednaki.
70:9.15 (794.10)
Few human rights were recognized in the European Middle Ages; then every man belonged to someone else, and rights were only privileges or favors granted by state or church. And the revolt from this error was equally erroneous in that it led to the belief that all men are born equal.
70:9.16 (794.11)
The weak and the inferior have always contended for equal rights; they have always insisted that the state compel the strong and superior to supply their wants and otherwise make good those deficiencies which all too often are the natural result of their own indifference and indolence.
Ali taj ideal jednakosti dijete je civilizacije; njega nema u prirodi. Čak i sama kultura uvjerljivo pokazuje urođenu nejednakost ljudi kroz njihovu vrlo nejednaku sposobnost za kulturu. Iznenadno i neevolucijsko ostvarenje navodne prirodne jednakosti brzo bi vratilo civiliziranog čovjeka grubim običajima primitivnih vremena. Društvo ne može svima ponuditi jednaka prava, ali može obećati da će različita prava svakoga pojedinca provoditi pravedno i nepristrano. Zadatak je i dužnost društva pružiti djetetu prirode poštenu i mirnu priliku za održanje samoga sebe, sudjelovanje u produženju vrste, dok istodobno uživa određenu mjeru osobnog zadovoljstva; dok zbroj svega toga čini ljudsku sreću.
70:9.17 (794.12)
But this equality ideal is the child of civilization; it is not found in nature. Even culture itself demonstrates conclusively the inherent inequality of men by their very unequal capacity therefor. The sudden and nonevolutionary realization of supposed natural equality would quickly throw civilized man back to the crude usages of primitive ages. Society cannot offer equal rights to all, but it can promise to administer the varying rights of each with fairness and equity. It is the business and duty of society to provide the child of nature with a fair and peaceful opportunity to pursue self-maintenance, participate in self-perpetuation, while at the same time enjoying some measure of self-gratification, the sum of all three constituting human happiness.
70:10.3 (794.15)
Primitive man assigned all phenomena to a person. In case of death the savage asked, not what killed him, but who? Accidental murder was not therefore recognized, and in the punishment of crime the motive of the criminal was wholly disregarded; judgment was rendered in accordance with the injury done.
U najranijem primitivnom društvu javno mnijenje djelovalo je izravno; službenici zakona nisu bili potrebni. U primitivnom životu nije bilo privatnosti. Čovjekovi susjedi bili su odgovorni za njegovo ponašanje; stoga su imali pravo zadirati u njegove osobne poslove. Društvo je bilo uređeno prema teoriji da pripadnost skupini treba podrazumijevati interes i određeni stupanj nadzora nad ponašanjem svakog pojedinca.
70:10.4 (795.1)
In the earliest primitive society public opinion operated directly; officers of law were not needed. There was no privacy in primitive life. A man’s neighbors were responsible for his conduct; therefore their right to pry into his personal affairs. Society was regulated on the theory that the group membership should have an interest in, and some degree of control over, the behavior of each individual.
Vrlo rano se vjerovalo da duhovi provode pravdu putem vračeva i svećenika; to je ove redove učinilo prvim istražiteljima zločina i službenicima zakona. Njihove rane metode otkrivanja zločina sastojale su se od kušnji otrovom, vatrom i boli. Ove divljačke kušnje nisu bile ništa više od grubih metoda presuđivanja; one nisu nužno pravedno rješavale sporove. Primjerice, kada bi optuženi nakon uzimanja otrova povratio, smatrao se nevinim.
70:10.5 (795.2)
It was very early believed that ghosts administered justice through the medicine men and priests; this constituted these orders the first crime detectors and officers of the law. Their early methods of detecting crime consisted in conducting ordeals of poison, fire, and pain. These savage ordeals were nothing more than crude techniques of arbitration; they did not necessarily settle a dispute justly. For example: When poison was administered, if the accused vomited, he was innocent.
Stari zavjet bilježi jednu od takvih kušnji, ispit bračne nevjere: Ako bi muškarac posumnjao da mu je žena nevjerna, odveo bi je svećeniku i iznio svoje sumnje, nakon čega bi svećenik pripremio napitak sastavljen od svete vode i prašine pometene s poda hrama. Nakon odgovarajućeg obreda, uključujući prijeteća prokletstva, optužena žena morala je popiti taj odvratni napitak. Ako bi bila kriva, „voda koja donosi prokletstvo ući će u nju i postati gorka; trbuh će joj oteći, bedra istrunuti, i žena će postati prokleta među svojim narodom.” Ako bi, kojim slučajem, neka žena mogla ispiti taj prljavi napitak bez pokazivanja znakova tjelesne bolesti, bila bi oslobođena optužbi svoga ljubomornog muža.
70:10.6 (795.3)
The Old Testament records one of these ordeals, a marital guilt test: If a man suspected his wife of being untrue to him, he took her to the priest and stated his suspicions, after which the priest would prepare a concoction consisting of holy water and sweepings from the temple floor. After due ceremony, including threatening curses, the accused wife was made to drink the nasty potion. If she was guilty, “the water that causes the curse shall enter into her and become bitter, and her belly shall swell, and her thighs shall rot, and the woman shall be accursed among her people.” If, by any chance, any woman could quaff this filthy draught and not show symptoms of physical illness, she was acquitted of the charges made by her jealous husband.
Nije čudno što su Hebreji i druga polucivilizirana plemena prije tri tisuće godina prakticirala takve primitivne metode provođenja pravde, ali je veoma začuđujuće da su razboriti ljudi kasnijih vremena zadržali takav relikt barbarstva među stranicama svojih svetih spisa. Razumno razmišljanje trebalo bi jasno pokazati da nijedno božansko biće nikada nije smrtnom čovjeku dalo tako nepravedne upute glede otkrivanja i presuđivanja sumnje na bračnu nevjeru.
70:10.8 (795.5)
It is not to be wondered that the Hebrews and other semicivilized tribes practiced such primitive techniques of justice administration three thousand years ago, but it is most amazing that thinking men would subsequently retain such a relic of barbarism within the pages of a collection of sacred writings. Reflective thinking should make it clear that no divine being ever gave mortal man such unfair instructions regarding the detection and adjudication of suspected marital unfaithfulness.
Društvo je rano usvojilo osvetnički stav odmazde: oko za oko, život za život. Sva evoluirajuća plemena priznavala su to pravo krvne osvete. Osveta je postala cilj primitivnog života, ali religija je od tada uvelike izmijenila te rane plemenske običaje. Učitelji objavljene religije uvijek su proglašavali: „Osveta je moja,” kaže Gospodin. Osvetničko ubijanje u ranim vremenima nije se mnogo razlikovalo od današnjih ubojstava pod izlikom nepisanog zakona.
70:10.9 (795.6)
Society early adopted the paying-back attitude of retaliation: an eye for an eye, a life for a life. The evolving tribes all recognized this right of blood vengeance. Vengeance became the aim of primitive life, but religion has since greatly modified these early tribal practices. The teachers of revealed religion have always proclaimed, “‘Vengeance is mine,’ says the Lord.” Vengeance killing in early times was not altogether unlike present-day murders under the pretense of the unwritten law.
Samoubojstvo je bilo čest način osvete. Ako se čovjek nije uspio osvetiti za života, umirao je u uvjerenju da će se kao duh vratiti i izliti gnjev nad svojim neprijateljem. Budući da je ovo vjerovanje bilo gotovo univerzalno, prijetnja samoubojstvom na pragu neprijateljeve kuće obično je bila dovoljna da ga prisili na popuštanje. Primitivan čovjek nije visoko cijenio život; samoubojstvo zbog sitnica bilo je često, ali su učenja Dalamatijaca uvelike umanjila ovaj običaj, dok su u novije vrijeme dokolica, udobnost, religija i filozofija zajedno učinile život slađim i poželjnijim. Štrajkovi glađu su, međutim, suvremene paralele ove drevne metode osvete.
70:10.10 (795.7)
Suicide was a common mode of retaliation. If one were unable to avenge himself in life, he died entertaining the belief that, as a ghost, he could return and visit wrath upon his enemy. And since this belief was very general, the threat of suicide on an enemy’s doorstep was usually sufficient to bring him to terms. Primitive man did not hold life very dear; suicide over trifles was common, but the teachings of the Dalamatians greatly lessened this custom, while in more recent times leisure, comforts, religion, and philosophy have united to make life sweeter and more desirable. Hunger strikes are, however, a modern analogue of this old-time method of retaliation.
Jedna od najranijih formulacija naprednijeg plemenskog zakona odnosila se na preuzimanje krvne osvete kao plemenske odgovornosti. Ali začudo, čak je i tada muškarac mogao ubiti svoju ženu bez kazne, pod uvjetom da je za nju u cijelosti platio. Eskimi još i danas prepuštaju određivanje i izvršenje kazne za zločin, čak i za ubojstvo, obitelji kojoj je nanesena nepravda.
70:10.11 (796.1)
One of the earliest formulations of advanced tribal law had to do with the taking over of the blood feud as a tribal affair. But strange to relate, even then a man could kill his wife without punishment provided he had fully paid for her. The Eskimos of today, however, still leave the penalty for a crime, even for murder, to be decreed and administered by the family wronged.
Još jedan korak naprijed bilo je uvođenje novčanih kazni za kršenje tabua. Te su globe predstavljale prvi oblik javnih prihoda. Običaj plaćanja „krvarine” također je stupio na snagu kao zamjena za krvnu osvetu. Takva se odšteta obično plaćala ženama ili stokom; prošlo je mnogo vremena prije nego što su stvarne novčane globe, materijalna naknada, bile određivane kao kazna za zločin. A budući da je ideja kazne u biti bila odšteta, sve je, uključujući i sam ljudski život, na kraju dobilo cijenu koja se mogla platiti kao naknada za štetu. Hebreji su prvi ukinuli običaj plaćanja krvarine. Mojsije je učio: „Ne smijete uzimati otkup za život ubojice koji je zaslužio smrt; on mora biti pogubljen.”
70:10.12 (796.2)
Another advance was the imposition of fines for taboo violations, the provision of penalties. These fines constituted the first public revenue. The practice of paying “blood money” also came into vogue as a substitute for blood vengeance. Such damages were usually paid in women or cattle; it was a long time before actual fines, monetary compensation, were assessed as punishment for crime. And since the idea of punishment was essentially compensation, everything, including human life, eventually came to have a price which could be paid as damages. The Hebrews were the first to abolish the practice of paying blood money. Moses taught that they should “take no satisfaction for the life of a murderer, who is guilty of death; he shall surely be put to death.”
Kazna spaljivanjem nekoć je bila uobičajena praksa. Priznavali su je mnogi drevni vladari, uključujući Hamurabija i Mojsija, pri čemu je potonji nalagao da se mnogi zločini, osobito oni teške spolne naravi, kažnjavaju spaljivanjem na lomači. Ako bi se „kći svećenika” ili neka druga pripadnica uglednog građanstva odala javnoj prostituciji, hebrejski je običaj bio: „Neka bude spaljena vatrom.”
70:10.14 (796.4)
Punishment by burning alive was once a common practice. It was recognized by many ancient rulers, including Hammurabi and Moses, the latter directing that many crimes, particularly those of a grave sex nature, should be punished by burning at the stake. If “the daughter of a priest” or other leading citizen turned to public prostitution, it was the Hebrew custom to “burn her with fire.”
Izdaja — „prodavanje” ili izdaja vlastitih suplemenika — bila je prvi zločin kažnjiv smrću. Krađa stoke gotovo se posvuda kažnjavala smrću, a još je donedavno i krađa konja bila kažnjavana na sličan način. Ali kako je vrijeme prolazilo, ljudi su spoznali da težina kazne nije toliko djelotvorna u sprječavanju zločina koliko njezina sigurnost i brzina.
70:10.15 (796.5)
Treason—the “selling out” or betrayal of one’s tribal associates—was the first capital crime. Cattle stealing was universally punished by summary death, and even recently horse stealing has been similarly punished. But as time passed, it was learned that the severity of the punishment was not so valuable a deterrent to crime as was its certainty and swiftness.
Jednako je teško povući jasnu granicu između običaja i zakona kao što je teško točno odrediti trenutak u svitanju kada noć ustupa mjesto danu. Običaji su zakoni i policijski propisi u nastajanju. Kada se dugo održavaju, neodređeni običaji teže kristalizaciji u precizne zakone, konkretne propise i jasno određene društvene konvencije.
70:11.1 (796.7)
It is just as difficult to draw sharp distinctions between mores and laws as to indicate exactly when, at the dawning, night is succeeded by day. Mores are laws and police regulations in the making. When long established, the undefined mores tend to crystallize into precise laws, concrete regulations, and well-defined social conventions.
Zakon je u početku uvijek negativan i pun zabrana; kako civilizacija napreduje, on postaje sve pozitivniji i usmjeravajući. Rano društvo djelovalo je negativno, dajući pojedincu pravo na život namećući svima drugima zapovijed: „Ne ubij.” Svako davanje prava ili slobode pojedincu podrazumijeva ograničavanje sloboda svih drugih, a to se postiže tabuom, primitivnim zakonom. Čitava ideja tabua po svojoj je prirodi negativna, jer je primitivno društvo bilo potpuno negativno u svojoj organizaciji, a rana provedba pravde sastojala se u provođenju tabua. Ali u početku su se ti zakoni odnosili samo na pripadnike vlastitog plemena, kao što pokazuju kasniji Hebreji, koji su imali drugačiji etički kodeks u ophođenju prema poganima.
70:11.2 (796.8)
Law is always at first negative and prohibitive; in advancing civilizations it becomes increasingly positive and directive. Early society operated negatively, granting the individual the right to live by imposing upon all others the command, “you shall not kill.” Every grant of rights or liberty to the individual involves curtailment of the liberties of all others, and this is effected by the taboo, primitive law. The whole idea of the taboo is inherently negative, for primitive society was wholly negative in its organization, and the early administration of justice consisted in the enforcement of the taboos. But originally these laws applied only to fellow tribesmen, as is illustrated by the later-day Hebrews, who had a different code of ethics for dealing with the gentiles.
Vlastiti interes uspostavio je tabu protiv ubijanja, društvo ga je posvetilo kao tradicionalni običaj, dok ga je religija uzdigla na razinu moralnog zakona; tako su sva tri čimbenika zajedno pridonijela tome da ljudski život postane sigurniji i svetiji. Društvo se u ranim vremenima ne bi moglo održati da prava nisu imala potvrdu religije; praznovjerje je tijekom dugih evolucijskih doba bilo moralna i društvena policijska sila. Svi drevni narodi tvrdili su da su njihovi preci primili svoje drevne zakone, tabue, od bogova.
70:11.5 (797.3)
Self-interest established the taboo on killing, society sanctified it as traditional mores, while religion consecrated the custom as moral law, and thus did all three conspire in rendering human life more safe and sacred. Society could not have held together during early times had not rights had the sanction of religion; superstition was the moral and social police force of the long evolutionary ages. The ancients all claimed that their olden laws, the taboos, had been given to their ancestors by the gods.
Zakon je kodificirani zapis dugog ljudskog iskustva, kristalizirano i ozakonjeno javno mnijenje. Običaji su predstavljali sirovu građu nagomilanog iskustva iz kojeg su kasniji vladari oblikovali pisane zakone. Drevni sudac nije imao zakone. Kada bi donosio presudu, jednostavno bi rekao: „To je običaj.”
70:11.6 (797.4)
Law is a codified record of long human experience, public opinion crystallized and legalized. The mores were the raw material of accumulated experience out of which later ruling minds formulated the written laws. The ancient judge had no laws. When he handed down a decision, he simply said, “It is the custom.”
Prvi sudovi bili su uređene borbe šakama; suci su bili tek nadglednici ili arbitri. Pazili su da se borba vodi prema prihvaćenim pravilima. Pri stupanju u sudsku borbu svaka bi strana položila polog za troškove suđenja i plaćanje globe nakon što jedna strana bude poražena od druge. „Sila bijaše pravo.” Kasnije su verbalni argumenti zamijenili fizičke sukobe.
70:11.13 (797.11)
The first courts were regulated fistic encounters; the judges were merely umpires or referees. They saw to it that the fight was carried on according to approved rules. On entering a court combat, each party made a deposit with the judge to pay the costs and fine after one had been defeated by the other. “Might was still right.” Later on, verbal arguments were substituted for physical blows.
Čitava ideja primitivne pravde nije bila toliko u tome da bude pravedna koliko da okonča spor i tako spriječi javni nered i privatno nasilje. Ali primitivan čovjek nije toliko zamjerao onome što bi se danas smatralo nepravdom; smatralo se posve prirodnim da oni koji imaju moć njome raspolažu sebično. Ipak, stanje bilo koje civilizacije može se vrlo točno odrediti prema temeljitosti i nepristranosti njezinih sudova te prema poštenju njezinih sudaca.
70:11.14 (797.12)
The whole idea of primitive justice was not so much to be fair as to dispose of the contest and thus prevent public disorder and private violence. But primitive man did not so much resent what would now be regarded as an injustice; it was taken for granted that those who had power would use it selfishly. Nevertheless, the status of any civilization may be very accurately determined by the thoroughness and equity of its courts and by the integrity of its judges.
Velika borba u evoluciji vladavine odnosila se na koncentraciju moći. Upravitelji svemira iz iskustva su naučili da se evolucijski narodi na naseljenim svjetovima najbolje upravljaju predstavničkim oblikom građanske vlasti kada se održava pravilna ravnoteža moći između dobro usklađenih izvršnih, zakonodavnih i sudskih grana vlasti.
70:12.1 (797.13)
The great struggle in the evolution of government has concerned the concentration of power. The universe administrators have learned from experience that the evolutionary peoples on the inhabited worlds are best regulated by the representative type of civil government when there is maintained proper balance of power between the well-co-ordinated executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
Dok se primitivna vlast temeljila na snazi, fizičkoj moći, idealna je vladavina predstavnički sustav u kojem se vodstvo temelji na sposobnosti; ali u danima barbarstva bilo je previše ratovanja da bi predstavnička vlast mogla djelotvorno funkcionirati. U dugoj borbi između podjele vlasti i jedinstva zapovijedanja, pobjedu je odnio diktator. Rane i raspršene ovlasti primitivnog vijeća starješina postupno su bile koncentrirane u osobi apsolutnog monarha. Nakon pojave pravih kraljeva, skupine starješina nastavile su postojati kao kvazizakonodavna i kvazisudska savjetodavna tijela; kasnije su se pojavila zakonodavna tijela ravnopravnog položaja, a naposljetku su ustanovljeni vrhovni sudovi koji su donosili presude neovisno o zakonodavnim tijelima.
70:12.2 (798.1)
While primitive authority was based on strength, physical power, the ideal government is the representative system wherein leadership is based on ability, but in the days of barbarism there was entirely too much war to permit representative government to function effectively. In the long struggle between division of authority and unity of command, the dictator won. The early and diffuse powers of the primitive council of elders were gradually concentrated in the person of the absolute monarch. After the arrival of real kings the groups of elders persisted as quasi-legislative-judicial advisory bodies; later on, legislatures of co-ordinate status made their appearance, and eventually supreme courts of adjudication were established separate from the legislatures.
Smrtnici Urantije imaju pravo na slobodu; oni trebaju stvarati svoje sustave vlasti; trebaju usvajati svoje ustave ili druge povelje građanske vlasti i upravnog postupka. A nakon što to učine, trebaju izabrati svoje najsposobnije i najdostojnije sugrađane za glavne izvršne dužnosnike. Za predstavnike zakonodavne grane trebaju birati samo one koji su intelektualno i moralno osposobljeni za ispunjenje tako svetih odgovornosti. Za suce svojih visokih i vrhovnih sudova trebaju birati jedino one koji su obdareni prirodnim sposobnostima i koji su stekli mudrost bogatim iskustvom.
70:12.5 (798.4)
Urantia mortals are entitled to liberty; they should create their systems of government; they should adopt their constitutions or other charters of civil authority and administrative procedure. And having done this, they should select their most competent and worthy fellows as chief executives. For representatives in the legislative branch they should elect only those who are qualified intellectually and morally to fulfill such sacred responsibilities. As judges of their high and supreme tribunals only those who are endowed with natural ability and who have been made wise by replete experience should be chosen.
Borba čovječanstva za usavršavanje vlasti na Urantiji svodi se na usavršavanje upravnih kanala, njihovo prilagođavanje stalno mijenjajućim potrebama, poboljšanje raspodjele ovlasti unutar vlade te izbor upravnih vođa koji su doista mudri. Iako postoji božanski i idealan oblik vladavine, on ne može biti objavljen otkrivenjem, već ga muškarci i žene svakog planeta u svemirima vremena i prostora moraju polako i mukotrpno otkrivati.
70:12.20 (799.1)
Mankind’s struggle to perfect government on Urantia has to do with perfecting channels of administration, with adapting them to ever-changing current needs, with improving power distribution within government, and then with selecting such administrative leaders as are truly wise. While there is a divine and ideal form of government, such cannot be revealed but must be slowly and laboriously discovered by the men and women of each planet throughout the universes of time and space.